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Fake News and Alternative Facts: Information Literacy in a Post-Truth Era
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Misinformation vs. Disinformation
Misinformation is information that is incomplete, uncertain,
vague or ambiguous. But misinformation
may be true, accurate and informative, depending on the context.
Disinformation is the dissemination of deliberately false
information. Disinformation is carefully
planned, and can come from individuals or groups, and can be circulated by
entities other than the creators. The
key to disinformation is that it is created with malicious or ill content. It can also be motivated by benevolence. It is context that enable an individual to
begin to make sense of the mis/disinformation being presented to them. (p. 6)
An Emotional Dimension
of Information Behavior
It is the affective dimension of learning and information
behavior that enable us to understand how and why fake news become so pervasive
and hard to displace. One of the
hallmarks of the post-truth era is the fact that consumers will deliberately
pass over objective facts in favor of information that agrees with or confirms
their existing beliefs, because they are emotionally invested in their current
mental schemas or are emotionally attached to the people or organization which
the new information portrays. (p. 7)
Filter bubbles,
also known as an echo chamber, are the result of the careful curation of social
media feeds, which enables users to be surrounded by like-minded people and information that is
aligned with their existing beliefs. Filter
bubbles are further aggravated by confirmation bias, which suggests that users
may actively seek and use information that already concurs with their existing mental
models, prior knowledge, and memories, as opposed to seeking information from a
variety of potentially conflicting sources.
It is very easy for people to avoid distasteful, upsetting, or just
incongruent information while in their social media filter bubbles. (p. 8)
Satisficing is
selecting information that is “good enough” to satisfy basic needs, or “choosing
the first acceptable answer to a question or solution to a problem,” “even if
it means accepting a lower quality or quantity of information.” ......satisficing
also contributes to the spread and inescapability of misinformation,
disinformation, and fake news by allowing low-quality information to remain in
circulation and be disseminated. (pp. 8-9)
The Illusion of
Internet Savvy
Holiday (2013) provides a fascinating account of how
information is massaged, manipulated, and pushed upthe media food chain where
it received buzz and high levels of attention and credibility, with little or
no verification or validity. Most of
what is considered mainstream, commercial, or traditional news and mass media
comes from surprisingly few sources (Columbia
Journalism Review 2017; Craft and Davis 2016, 87-96; Miller, 2015, 315;
Selyukh, Hollenhorst, and Park 2016; Vinton 2016). The highly concentrated nexus of media
ownershiprevolves around a few large media conglomerates like Viacom, CBS
Corporation, Time Warner, 21st Century Fox, Walt Disney Company,
Hearst Corporation, and the Comcast Corporation (le 2015; Pew Research
2017). The media oligopoly (the term
used when a few companies dominate a market) also includes radio, print, and
Internet holdings and venues that also produce and disseminate news. These entities also typically have blogs and
other subsidiary sites attached to them.
Iterative Journalism
The cycle of fake news begins with hyperlocal sites that
have low or no barriers for information to enter the stream. Holiday describes the process of information,
however questionable, being picked up by small blogs that seems to be monitored
by the Huffington Post and other
popular sites. Once that information is
picked up, the “news story” is on its way.
The key is to have knowledge of the right entry points that will
facilitates the rise and spread of this fake, or partially fake,
information. Similarly, there is legacy
media, the “sister sites” of mainstream media outlets such as the blogs of
newspapers and television stations.
These sister sites benefit from the same branding, URL, and assumed
quality of the main site. “Places like
the Wall Street Journal, Newsweek, and CBS all have sister sites
like SmartMoney.com, Mainstreet.com, BNet.com, and others that feature the companies’
logos but have their own editorial standards [that are] not always as rigorous
as their old media counterparts” (Holiday 2013, 21). Once information hits their sister sites, it
is easier for it to reach national media platforms; these platforms need
content and page views too, and are prone to look for and publish information
that’s trending and “bubbling up on the Internet” (23). The national media is taking the news at face
value and is also not doing due diligence in regard to fact-checking or vetting
information.
…DJs, news anchors, and other “on-air’ personalities now
report on what they’ve seen or heard on blogs, YouTube, Twitter, and other
social media platforms, instead of …more traditional sources of journalistic
information. They are engaging in what
is referred to as iterative journalism. Their emphasis is on getting information
first, whether it is right or wrong; false information can always be corrected
later, even if no one sees or hears a correction or retraction (Holiday 2013,
167). With iterative journalism, there
is little distinction between truth and fiction, and there are no mistakes, just
updates. This form of reporting is more
about opinions and commentary than it is about the objective facts that journalism
has traditionally been based upon.
The Explosion of
Citizen Journalists (“Disintermediation”)
Technology changes the way information travels from its
producers to its audiences. In most
cases, these alternative pathways lead to “the disintermediation of traditional
gatekeepers, including information professionals. Disintermediation is the bypassing of
established players in a value chain either through the introduction of new
technologies or via new business processes.”
Disintermediation is yet another reason why fake news
thrives, because information can travel from content producer to consumer in a
matter of seconds without being vetted by intermediaries such as reputable news
organizations. This lack of vetting or
confirmation can be a disservice to the consumer, who may not be aware of the
low quality of the information being consumed or may not have the skills to
discern otherwise.
Critical Thinking and
Metaliteracy
Thinking is an action.
(Bell Hooks 2010,7)
Critical thinking involves “discerning the who, what, when,
where, and how of things –and then utilizing that knowledge in a manner that
enables you to determine what matters most.” (9)
(p. 15)
Information consumers should be skeptical. They should be continually questioning the
information being presented, even if it is presented by a trusted source.
Spin: paints a
false picture of reality by bending facts, mischaracterizing the words of
others, ignoring or denying crucial evidence, or just ‘spinning a yarn,’ by
making things up.
Counter knowledge: “misinformation
packaged to look like fact and that some critical mass of peoplehas begun to
believe.” (Levitin 2016, 168)
Sources that can be
consulted to authenticate and repudiate suspect information/Resources for Information Consumers:
Snopes.com (www.snopes.com)
researches circulated stories and provides the historical context of
Center for Disease Control (www.cdc.gov/hoax_rumors.html) an
easy way to confirm or deny medical information and rumors
Know Your Meme (http://knowyourmeme.com)
giving comprehensive information about the messages, visuals and videos that
appear regularly on social media sites.
PolitiFact (www.pilitifact.com)
dealing with political information and fodder.
checkology Virtual Classroom (www.thenewsliteracyproject.org/services/checkology)
It equips students with the tools to interpret the news and information that shape their lives so they can make informed decisions about what to believe, share, and act on and actively become active members of civic society.
The Fact Checker (The Washington Post) https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker
checkology Virtual Classroom (www.thenewsliteracyproject.org/services/checkology)
It equips students with the tools to interpret the news and information that shape their lives so they can make informed decisions about what to believe, share, and act on and actively become active members of civic society.
The Fact Checker (The Washington Post) https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker
First started in 2007, revived as a permanent feature in 2011. The purpose of this website, and an accompanying column in the Sunday print edition of the Washington Post, is to "truth squad" the statements of political figures regarding issues of great importance, be they national, international or local. But it is not limited to political charges or countercharges. It also seeks to explain difficult issues, provide missing context, and provide analysisand explanations of various "code words" used by politicians, diplomats, and others to obscure or shade the truth.
FactCheck.org https://www.factcheck.org
a nonpartisan, nonprofit "consumer advocate" for voters that aim to reduce the level of deception and confusion in US politics. It monitors the factual accuracy of what is said by major US political players in the form of TV ads, debates, speeches, interviews, and news releases. Goal: to apply the bestpractices of both journalism and scholarship, and to increase public knowledge and understanding.
Rudimentary Information
Evaluation Skills
Users should question the currency of the info
Carefully examine the website’s URL
Consider the language used (melodramatic, provocative,
absolute?)
Consider the reasonableness of the info
Consider the reputation and the leaning of the website
providing the info
Need to be taught to evaluate, organize and effectively use
info; must be proficient in multiple forms of lieracy, must seek, find and use
quality info.
Info literacy
considers the larger context in which info is discovered and consumed. It encourages users to seek info that is
relevant and has the potential to be useful over the long term. Critical info literacy advocates that info be
viewed in situ (in its original form and source), and that it be evaluated in
relation to the underlying power structures that shape all info, and the
acquisition of agency that comes with the acquisition of quality info (Acardi,
Drainski, and Kumbier 2010; Booth 2011; Elmborg 2006; Tisdell 2008).
Digital Literacy
Skills
Skills at “deciphering complex images and sounds as well as
the syntactical subtleties of words” (Lanham 1995).
Metaliteracy
An overarching and self-referential framework that
integrates emerging technologies and unifies multiple literacy types. This redefinition of information literacy
expands the scope of generally understood information competencies and places a
particular emphasis on producing and sharing information in participatory
digital environment. (Thomas P. Mackey
& trudi E. Jacobson 2011, 62-63)
“Metaliterate learners are critically engaged learners and
are themselves content producers, who can contribute to discourse and can also
successfully navigate the information landscape that is riddled with alterative
facts, biases, spi, and counter knowledge.
It is the metaliterate learner who may be the best equipped to control
and dispel fake news.” (p. 19)
How to Stop fake News
1. Consider the source
2. Read beyond
3. Check the author
4. Supporting sources?
5. Check the date
6. Is it a joke?
7. Check your biases
8. Ask the experts
Breaking News Consumer's Handbook
ALL CAPS, or obviously photoshopped pics.
A glut of pop-ups and banner ads? Good sign the story is pure clickbait.
Check the domain. Fake sites often add ".co" to trusted brands to steal their luster. (Think: "abcnews.com.co")
If you land on an unknown site, check its "About" page. Then Google it with the word "fake" and see what comes up.
If a story offers links, follow them. (Garbage leads to worse garbage). No links, quotes, or references? Another telltale sign.
Verify an unlikely story by finding a reputable outlet reporting the same thing.
Check the date. Social media often resurrects outdated stories.
Read past headlines. Often they bear no resemblance to what lies beneath.
Photos may be misidentified and dated. Use a reverse image search engine like TinEye to see where an image really comes from.
Gut check. If a story makes you angry, it's probably designed that way.
Finally, if you are not sure it's true, don't share it.
Protect Yourself from Fake News
1. Be skeptical
2. Spell check
3. Identify the author
4. Compare and contrast
5. Consult multiple sources
6. Check it out
7. Dig deeper
8. Beware online "Flter Bubbles"
9. Be open-minded
How to Stop fake News
1. Consider the source
2. Read beyond
3. Check the author
4. Supporting sources?
5. Check the date
6. Is it a joke?
7. Check your biases
8. Ask the experts
Breaking News Consumer's Handbook
ALL CAPS, or obviously photoshopped pics.
A glut of pop-ups and banner ads? Good sign the story is pure clickbait.
Check the domain. Fake sites often add ".co" to trusted brands to steal their luster. (Think: "abcnews.com.co")
If you land on an unknown site, check its "About" page. Then Google it with the word "fake" and see what comes up.
If a story offers links, follow them. (Garbage leads to worse garbage). No links, quotes, or references? Another telltale sign.
Verify an unlikely story by finding a reputable outlet reporting the same thing.
Check the date. Social media often resurrects outdated stories.
Read past headlines. Often they bear no resemblance to what lies beneath.
Photos may be misidentified and dated. Use a reverse image search engine like TinEye to see where an image really comes from.
Gut check. If a story makes you angry, it's probably designed that way.
Finally, if you are not sure it's true, don't share it.
Protect Yourself from Fake News
1. Be skeptical
2. Spell check
3. Identify the author
4. Compare and contrast
5. Consult multiple sources
6. Check it out
7. Dig deeper
8. Beware online "Flter Bubbles"
9. Be open-minded
Source:
Nicole A. Cooke. Fake News and Alternative Facts: Information
Literacy in a Post-Truth Era. (Chicago, 2018). ALA Editions. Special Reports.
