Khanh T. Tran, AMI Environmental, USA
This article was
presented at the United Nations Day of Vesak (UNDV) Conference from May 27-30,
2015 in Bangkok, Thailand. The Bangkok Declaration of the Conference has
explicitly mentioned the Mekong river and has urged all nations in the ASEAN
community and neighboring nations to work together to find a solution to
the dire situation of the Mekong river and its fragile ecological system. The
Mekong issues will also be presented to the UN General Assembly.
Introduction
From its origin in the high plateau of Tibet, the
Mekong river is 4500 km long and the 12th longest river in the world, flowing
through six countries that include China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and
Vietnam. Through its long course, the river is known as Lancang in China,
Mekong in Myanmar, Laos and Thailand, and finally as River of Nine Dragons
because it flows out to sea through nine estuaries in south Vietnam. True
to its name (Mekong means Mother River in Laotian), the Mekong river is the
lifeline to more than 65 million inhabitants, mainly in downstream countries of
Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. The majority of these inhabitants are
Buddhists and all three major Buddhist traditions are practiced:
Theravada in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia; Mahayana in China and
Vietnam; and Vajrayana in Tibet. Hence, the Mekong is called the “River
of Buddhism”. Most residents along the river are poor fishermen living
off the river fish catch or poor farmers using the river water and rich silt to
grow rice. They also use the river as their principal means of
transportation. In the next two decades, the number of the basin inhabitants is
expected to increase to over 100 millions. Their daily life is constantly
threatened by floods, deforestation, pollution as well as ill-planned
development projects. The biggest threat to their livelihood is the gigantic
hydroelectric dams built or planned in Yunnan Province and the smaller dams in
Laos and on the Lower Mekong. Moreover, the Chinese have cleared and enlarged
the river as a navigation channel for large commercial boats including oil
transport vessels. These development projects cause serious economic and
environmental consequences in countries within the river basin. All these
environmental effects will be worsened by global warming in coming years (Khanh
Tran, 2014). In going ahead with these hydropower projects, upstream countries
have not considered the interests and concerns of downstream countries. They
may be the causes for conflict, political crisis and even war in the near
future. Even the survival of the river may be in serious doubt in the next few
decades. The remaining sections will discuss the dams and their environmental
effects, and a Buddhist-inspired response to ensure the peaceful and
sustainable development of the river resources.
Exploiting the River
In the last twenty years, there has been an active program to build
several dams for hydroelectric power on the Mekong river. (Richard Cronin,
2010; Scott Pearse-Smith, 2012). As of 2014, there are 26 dams on the
mainstream, 14 on the Lancang river (the name of Upper Mekong in China) in the
Yunnan Province of China and 12 on the Lower Mekong. China has
built a cascade of large dams on the Lancang, beginning with the Manwan in 1993
with an electrical output of 1500 MW. The Dachaoshan dam was completed in
December 2002 with an output of 1350 MW, a height of a 30-story building and a
water reservoir of 88 km in length. Next was the Xiaowan dam, with an output of
4200 MW and a reservoir of 169 km in length and a cost of 4 billion USD. This
dam is the tallest in the world, with a height of 300 m similar to a 100-story
building. The largest and most expensive dam (about $10 billion USD) on
the Mekong so far, the Nuozhadu, was completed in 2014 with a height of 261 m,
a reservoir of 226 km long and an output of 5850 MW. At least eight other big
dams are also planned by the Chinese.
Starting in 2006, companies from Thailand, Malaysia, and China have
conducted feasibility studies of 12 run-of-river dams in the Lower Mekong
Basin. Among these dams, Xayaburi is considered the first mainstream dam
located in Laos and outside of China’s borders. With an output of 1260 MW and a
total investment costs of $3.5 billion USD, it is funded by four major Thai
banks and a Bangkok-based company, Ch. Karnchang, is the builder.
In October 2013, the Lao government notified the Mekong River Commission
(MRC) of its decision to build the second mainstream dam Don Sahong. It is a
run-of-river dam located near the Khone Waterfall in the Siphadone area of
Champasak Province of southern Laos, only 2 km from the Laos-Cambodia border.
Its output is to be small at only 260 MW, with a height of 30m and a
width of only 100m. The dam would block the Hou Sahong channel, the main
channel for fish migrating between Cambodia, Laos and Thailand year around.
This channel is especially important in the dry season when most other channels
become impassable due to low water levels. The disruption of fish migrations
through blocking of this vital channel means the destruction of vital
subsistence and commercial fisheries in the Lower Mekong Basin. In spite of
intense and wide protests, the Lao government still intends to pursue the dam construction.
The Mekong River Commission (MRC) has recently announced that a regional public
consultation meeting for interested stakeholders on the Don Sahong Hydropower
Project will occur on 12 December 2014 in Pakse, Lao PDR (MRC, 2014).
In 1866, a French expedition team was led by Doudart de Lagrée and
Francis Garnier to sail upstream the Mekong. The French team was stopped by the
underwater rocks and rapids in Upper Laos. In recent years, China has completed
the dredging of the river and clear the underwater rocks and rapids on a
300-km stretch of the river, from the Burmese-Chinese border to Laos to
facilitate the travel by large boats. Commercial boats larger than 100 MT can
travel from the port of Simao in Yunnan to other ports in neighboring countries.
Of particular note are the oil transport vessels since they pose severe dangers
of oil spills which can quickly devastate the entire Mekong ecosystem (MRC,
2012).
Environmental Effects
Dam builders in China and Laos have stated that all the above hydroelectric
and navigational development projects should bring large benefits to the
countries downstream. They have also maintained that any ecological and
environmental effects, if existed, are minimal. The hydroelectric dams should
alleviate the flooding problem during the monsoon season and the drought
problem during the dry season. Turning the river into a shipping channel should
also increase trade between China and other neighboring countries and bring
prosperity to all. These development projects are often conducted in secrecy
and little details are known. The dam builders frequently minimize or hide all
adverse environmental impacts.
Contrary to the findings of the builders, hydroelectric dams cause
severe economic and environmental disasters, affecting the lives of millions in
countries downstream. Mekong floods occur annually from June to October and
hundreds have lost their life. Most of the flood victims are children who die
of drowning due to lack of supervision by older members of their family.
There are signs that the Yunnan dams have increased the flood intensity. Since
the water reservoirs have been full, the dams have released excess water that
further raised the floodwater level of the Mekong. The number of flood victims
and damages to crops and homes have increased in Cambodia, Thailand and
elsewhere.
During the dry season, the Mekong water level is markedly low because only the glaciers in Tibet and Yunnan remain the water sources. The average flow rate decreases from 50000 m3/s during the rainy season to only 2000 m3/s during the dry months. The dry season normally lasts from November to May. If the upstream dams do not release water because of drought or water needs of the reservoirs, serious consequences can occur downstream. All downstream countries will be affected by saltwater intrusion, and rice fields in many places will have to be abandoned because of saltwater or lack of water for growing crops.
In addition to changing the water levels and the natural cycles of the Mekong, water reservoirs at the dams retain the rich sediment. Lacking water and rich silt will render the rice fields downstream less fertile. Rice production will decrease drastically, especially in the Mekong delta of Vietnam. In the first ten years of Manwan Dam’s operation, the annual mean sediment trapped by the Manwan Dam alone was estimated to be about 35% of total sedimentation transported from Lancang Basin to Lower Mekong. The amount of rich silt may decrease up to 50% because of the dams. This will cause large crop losses since the Mekong delta is the main rice producing area of Vietnam. It accounts for 50% of total annual production of 28 MT and 90% of export of 7 MT. The delta also accounts for 60% of fish and seafood exports from Vietnam. This will affect millions of people in the Lower Mekong Basin and elsewhere, as far as Africa due to reduced rice and fish export.
During the dry season, the Mekong water level is markedly low because only the glaciers in Tibet and Yunnan remain the water sources. The average flow rate decreases from 50000 m3/s during the rainy season to only 2000 m3/s during the dry months. The dry season normally lasts from November to May. If the upstream dams do not release water because of drought or water needs of the reservoirs, serious consequences can occur downstream. All downstream countries will be affected by saltwater intrusion, and rice fields in many places will have to be abandoned because of saltwater or lack of water for growing crops.
In addition to changing the water levels and the natural cycles of the Mekong, water reservoirs at the dams retain the rich sediment. Lacking water and rich silt will render the rice fields downstream less fertile. Rice production will decrease drastically, especially in the Mekong delta of Vietnam. In the first ten years of Manwan Dam’s operation, the annual mean sediment trapped by the Manwan Dam alone was estimated to be about 35% of total sedimentation transported from Lancang Basin to Lower Mekong. The amount of rich silt may decrease up to 50% because of the dams. This will cause large crop losses since the Mekong delta is the main rice producing area of Vietnam. It accounts for 50% of total annual production of 28 MT and 90% of export of 7 MT. The delta also accounts for 60% of fish and seafood exports from Vietnam. This will affect millions of people in the Lower Mekong Basin and elsewhere, as far as Africa due to reduced rice and fish export.
While rice fields downstream lack the rich sediment, the dams in
Yunnan are silted up. The rate of silt flowing into the Manwan dam has doubled
compared to initial estimates. One of the reasons that the Chinese have used to
justify the building of the Xiaowan dam is that this dam is upstream of the
Manwan dam and, therefore, can reduce the amount of silt flowing into the
Manwan dam. Nevertheless, the Xiaowan dam and all other dams will be filled by
silt in the next few decades. All water reservoirs will become vast and useless
wastelands! On average, the useful life of each dam will be shortened to about
20 years, compared to the initial estimate of 70 years.
With 1245 fish species, the Mekong is the second river in the world
with the most fish species, just behind the Amazon in South America. Among
these are rare species like the giant catfish weighing up to 300 kg and the
river dolphin. Each year about two million metric tons (MT) are caught in
downstream countries. Lake Tonle Sap in Cambodia alone has produced 400000
MT. The Lower Mekong dams are small in terms of power output relative to the
Chinese dams, yet their ecological effects may even be larger. The section of
the Mekong at the Khone Waterfall where the Don Sahong dam (with a tiny output
of 260 MW) will be located is considered as the vital point of the entire
ecosystem of the Mekong basin. Right at the foot of the Khone Waterfall, one
can find a congregation of the largest variety of fresh water fish not only in
Southeast Asia but also in the whole world. Many independent fisheries
experts conclude that the dam would have a serious impact on fish migration as
the channel is the only one within the Khone Falls complex that is
passable to migratory fishes in the dry season, and the major migration channel
year round (Ian G. Baird, 2011). Of particular note are the risks to the
survival of the Irrawaddy dolphins that only 85 are known to survive along this
stretch of the river.
The Yunnan, Lower Mekong and other dams modify the water levels,
temperature and cycles of the Mekong river. All these changes adversely affect
the birth and growth of all fish species. Dredging the river also makes its
water flowing faster and cause the erosion of the river banks. Underwater rocks
that are currently prime breeding sites for fish have been destroyed. Several
fish species will disappear because they cannot adapt to the unnatural changes.
Fishermen in several locations along the Mekong have already complained that
their fish catch has drastically been reduced in recent years. This is an
adverse impact affecting the livelihood and health of millions of people in
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam since fish is their primary source of protein.
The Chinese government initially stated that the Upper Mekong dams
are to provide power and economic prosperity to the Yunnan Province which is a
relatively poor area. Contrary to this initial statement, electrical power generated
by these dams is used by large cities and industries on the Eastern coast.
Similarly, electricity from the Lao dams is to be sold to Thai users. In
addition to serious ecological effects shown above, dams and their reservoirs
can cause earthquakes. They also emit large amounts of greenhouse gases which
cause global warming, mainly methane from decaying vegetation and soil
(International Rivers, 2007). Methane is known to be about 25 times more potent
than carbon dioxide (CO2). According to scientific studies, e. g. those from
Brazil National Institute for Amazon Research (INPA), a hydropower plant has
more global warming impact per kwh than a coal-fired power plant! Costing about
$10 billion USD, the new Nuozhadu dam only replaces 9 million tons of coal
burned per year, a tiny amount compared to the 3 billion tons of coal used by
China in 2010. Even the smaller Xayaburi dam is estimated to cost around $3.5
billion USD, a large financial investment for the small economy of Laos (2013
GDP is $11.14 billion USD). Thus, contrary to popular beliefs, HYDROPOWER IS
EXPENSIVE and NOT CLEAN! This important finding is consistent with a study
completed in November 2000 by the World Commission on Dams (WCD, 2000). This
study has found that most big dam projects in the world have not resulted in
any economic benefits when compared to the construction costs, the resettlement
of people and adverse environmental impacts. In July 2012, US Secretary of
State Hillary Clinton had urged a delay and further study of the Xayaburi dam
(Hillary Clinton, 2012). She even stated that the US had made many mistakes in
water projects and called on the Mekong nations to learn from the US
experience, offering to help fund scientific studies on the impact of the
proposed dams. She stated that “We’ve learned some hard lessons about what
happens when you make certain infrastructure decisions and I think that we all
can contribute to helping the nations of the Mekong region avoid the mistakes
that we and others made.”
A Buddhist Response
Starting from its origin in Tibet, the countries and peoples along
the Mekong river are predominantly Buddhist. All three major Buddhist
traditions are practiced by its inhabitants: the Theravada tradition in
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand; the Mahayana tradition in China and
Vietnam; and the Vajrayana tradition in Tibet. Despite some differences, all
traditions share the same following basic Buddhist teachings:
·
The Four Noble Truths,
·
The Eightfold Noble Path,
·
The Three Poisons,
·
The Middle Way,
·
The Dependent
Origination,
·
The Five Precepts,
·
Karmic Retribution and
·
Buddhist Virtues
(non-violence, loving-kindness, compassion, joy and equanimity)
The three poisons, mainly greed and ignorance, are the fundamental
causes of the environmental crises and conflicts on the Mekong. Greed in
monetary profits and other economic gains has fueled the construction of dams.
For the Lao dams, profit is the sole motive since the generated power will be
sold to Thai users and the large loans required for building the dams are huge
investments in a tiny economy such as Laos. In any case, this monetary
gain is highly uncertain as the recession in recent years has depressed
electricity demands. Ignorance or delusion cause us to think the
permanence of all things, to misuse natural resources and to ignore the serious
environmental effects. In the last three decades, China has adopted the policy
of economic development at all costs and has now realized that this unwise
policy has severely polluted its air, water and environment. The dams may have
offered some short-term economic benefits to the local economies (e.g.,
construction jobs, large investments) but these are far outweighed by the
long-term sufferings of thousands who had to resettle (e.g., 43000 people
resettled for building the Nuozhadu dam) and millions of poor fishermen and
rice farmers who become even poorer due to reduced harvests. Dams have created
widespread suffering, especially in downstream countries.
Since upstream countries are reaping all benefits and downstream
countries are suffering most, if not all, environmental impacts, conflicts and
even wars may arise. The Mekong conflicts can be resolved by applying the
principle of dependent origination. Whether upstream or downstream, we have to
realize that we live in an interconnected and interdependent world where
anyone’s actions, however small, will affect everybody else and the planet as a
whole. In recent years, well-known Buddhist virtues such as compassion and
loving-kindness have also been proposed as response to global warming and other
environmental crises (Khanh Tran, 2014). These virtues, together with
sympathetic joy and equanimity, are the fundamental qualities of a Bodhisattva
who vows to work tirelessly to liberate all other sentient beings from
suffering. Sentient beings include not only humans but also animals, such as
the giant catfish and river dolphins that are facing extinction, and the
environment in general.
The Mekong conflicts between upstream and downstream countries
remind us of the dispute over water rights of the Rohini river between the
Sakya and Koliya clans in Buddha’s time. Buddha had intervened in this dispute
which arose from the suspicions of an unequal distribution of river water. He
had resolved it peacefully by asking the involved parties whether human lives
lost due to war would be more valuable than the river water. Buddha spoke thus:
“Great kings, ministers, commanders, soldiers why do you want to fight and
kill each other, for a petty matter like the distribution of water. If I did
not visit you today, you would have set flowing Rohini - A River of Blood. You
have acted in an unbecoming manner. You live in enmity. You'll all indulging in
the five kinds of hatred. Look at me. I live free from hatred. Both parties in
the warpath, live with evil passion. Therefore, do not hate each other. Live as
Peace loving people. Hatred will not take you anywhere. Be compassionate and be
kind to all” (from http://enews.buddhistdoor.com/en/news/d/28739).
Strategy for Sustainable Hydropower Development
As mentioned above, upstream countries often minimize the
environmental impacts of the dams and largely ignore the interests and concerns
of downstream countries. Thus, extensive communication and cooperation between
countries are required for sustainable development. An objective evaluation of
the project requires a comprehensive environmental assessment (EA) which openly
and accurately presents the costs and benefits as well as environmental
impacts. This environmental assessment needs to consider inputs from all
stakeholders, from dam builders to local farmers/fishermen and downstream
countries. It is to be performed transparently and objectively by
third-party consultants that are not biased and well-known for their
expertise. Environmental impacts of the proposed dam project
at all levels (local, national and trans-boundary), its costs and benefits,
mitigation measures and project alternatives should be fully analyzed in the
EA. All four downstream countries (Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam)
are members of the Mekong River Commission (MRC), while the two upstream
countries (China and Myanmar) have refused to join but have frequently sent in
observers. According to the 1995 Mekong Agreement, any development project is
subject to the MRC Procedures for Notification, Prior
Consultation, and Agreement. Under this agreement, the host country for the
project should notify and consult the governments of the other signatories.
Thus, it is recommended that all countries, including China and Myanmar,
strictly adhere to this MRC protocol. This will minimize the suspicions between
countries and seriously consider the interests and concerns of all parties. The
MRC should also be granted some enforcement authority so that it can actively
participate in conflict resolution.
Alternative Strategy for Sustainable Power Development
As mentioned above, dams are not cost-effective when their building
costs and environmental impacts are considered. Contrary to popular beliefs,
they are also not a source of clean energy, since they generate substantial
amounts of greenhouse gases. Thus, a sustainable approach would be to develop
renewable energy sources which are truly clean such as wind and solar energy.
These clean renewable energy sources do not suffer the severe environmental
effects of the dams. As the world largest emitter of greenhouse gases, China
has recently committed to reducing its emissions of greenhouse gases by 2030 by
using less coal and more renewable energy. Since power generated by the Lower
Mekong dams is primarily exported to Thailand and Vietnam and the electricity
amounts to be supplied to these countries are rather modest (7000 MW to
Thailand and 5000 MW to Vietnam by 2020), the deployment of renewable energy in
the Lower Mekong basin can also be a viable and sustainable option. With costs
rapidly decreasing, wind and solar plants offer competitive alternatives to
dams. Instead of building the Don Sahong dam with an output of only 260 MW,
solar and wind plants with the same power output will certainly be much less
expensive. A modeling study conducted for the World Bank Asia Alternative
Energy program has shown that good sites for wind energy are available in the mountains
of central and southern Vietnam, central Laos, and central and western Thailand
(World Bank, 2001). Moreover, wind and solar plants do not require vast lands
and the resettlement of thousands of local peoples. They also do not cause
adverse impacts on fisheries as well as rice production in downstream
countries.
Alternative Strategy for Sustainable Economic Development
Economic development is
often cited as a primary reason for building the dams. These economic concerns
are certainly legitimate since the regions where the dams are located are
mainly poor and economically depressed. We have recently proposed light
manufacturing as a sustainable approach for economic development in low-income
countries (Hinh Dinh et al., 2014). Based on studies conducted by experts at
the World Bank, light manufacturing such as textile, furniture and wood working
has been shown to be responsible for the economic miracles in China, Korea and
Taiwan. It has the potential of creating quickly thousands of jobs without large
capital investment and extensive environmental impacts. Unlike temporary jobs
created by dam construction, light manufacturing jobs are long lasting and can
lift millions of low-skilled workers out of poverty. It certainly is
appropriate for low-income countries such as Cambodia and
Laos.
Special Role of the Sangha
Since the countries and peoples along the Mekong river are mainly
Buddhists, the Sangha can play an important role in shifting the construction
of dams to clean, renewable energy and light manufacturing. In countries with
Theravada tradition (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand), the Sangha has
enormous influence in respective societies. It can use its influence to guide
the government in adopting the right policies. More importantly, it can
educate its lay devotees and the general public about the costs and
environmental impacts of dams, and the benefits of clean, renewable energy and
light manufacturing. All this Buddha’s work can be done for good karmic
retribution since, according to a popular Vietnamese saying, “saving a
life is worth more than building seven temples”!
Conclusions
The hydroelectric dams, both in Yunnan and the Lower Mekong basin,
cause severe social, economic and environmental disasters, both locally and in
downstream countries, especially Cambodia and Vietnam. The survival of these
countries along with the livelihood of over 65 million people are threatened.
Most dam projects have not brought any significant economic benefits when
compared with their enormous costs and the adverse environmental impacts.
Upstream countries need to realize that the Mekong river is not only for
upstream countries but also for downstream ones. The Buddhist teaching of
dependent origination requires mutual understanding, full cooperation, respect
of interests and concerns of others. Compassion covers both humans
and animals, especially the fish species that are facing extinction. It is
recommended that all countries, including upstream China and Myanmar, fully collaborate
and strictly adhere to the Mekong River Commission procedures. A viable and
sustainable alternative to dams is solar and wind energy. Light manufacturing
has also been suggested as the viable strategy for economic development. Since
the countries and peoples along the Mekong are mainly Buddhists, the Sangha can
play an important role in influencing the government policies and educating the
general public about the costs and environmental impacts of dams and the
benefits of clean, renewable energy. Only through these efforts can
future conflicts, economic and environmental disasters be avoided and the River
of Buddhism can be spared of a terrible death in a very near future!
* * *
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