"...to comprehend fully the nature of the people, one must be a prince, and to comprehend fully the nature of princes, one must be an ordinary citizen,"
Nicolo Machiavelli, Il Principe
One can best understand leadership from the "outside" perspective of the follower," (p. 5)but "[l]eadership has to be seen from the inside as well, to have a well-rounded appreciation for what it involves." (p.6)
Chapter 1 What is leadership?
Leaders determine or clarify goals for a group of individuals and bring together the energies of members of that group to accomplish those goals. (p. 23)
What do leaders do? make decisions, devise and implement strategies, compromise to achieve goals, listen to proposals or petitions, adjudicate conflicts, assemble resources, deploy incentives, seek counsel and issue statements about the decisions they have made or the problems they must confront... They take stands, and attempt to persuade. seek partners, require or force others to follow a course of actions....
Methods they use:active, visible, or subtle, behind the scene.
Characteristics of public leadership: in higher education: transparency about goals and methods, consultation...
Categories of "good" or "bad" leaders on grounds of either morality or effectiveness.
Chapter 2 Connections between leaders and followers
multifaceted and complex, the influence of followers on leaders can be exercised in many ways.
There are no leaders without followers, or subordinates who have less power, and who fall into line. They differ according to their place in complex organizations. It is like a set of concentric circles, with a leader in the middle.
The difference between leaders and followers is especially hard to defined in a democracy, where ultimate authority resides in the body of the citizens, and ordinary individuals may take initiatives in policy making. In a democracy leaders are chosen by the followers, and charged with carrying out their will. Actions and decisions of leaders are shaped by the actual and anticipated reactions and preferences of followers. Even in lass democratic situations, the desires and preferences of followers help define what it is possible. But good leaders use their best judgment to formulate goals and strategies, and to determine outcomes.
Our world is so interconnected that behaviors by any individual has the potential to change lives of others in profound and unpredictable ways. Followers sometime engage in activities whose scope and range of impact is greater than that of many leaders.
Problems in complex organizations seldom have one best solution. The best solutions are more likely to be found if other people help you look than if you insist on finding them on your own.
Responsibilities of leaders to their subordinates: help them develop and exercise their talents as leaders; mentoring, providing appropriate opportunities for initiatives, regular reviews of their performance, and thoughtful counseling.
A reciprocal relationship between leaders and their close subordinates, helping or hindering one another in performing their tasks.
Machiavelli: "It is desirable to be both loved and feared; but it is difficult to achieve both; and if one of them has to be lacking, it is much safer to be feared than loved."
Resistance:
Richard Morrill: "from the gathering of elders to the ballot box, from passive resistance to violence in the streets, followers know how to influence and replace their leaders."
In most democracies, the role of the opposition party is to offer critical attacks on the leader's work, and attempt to create the conditions for a different policy, or a different leadership. Robert C. Tucker points out: " democratic government entails primarily the institutionalized possibility of active political participation in the defining of problem situations for the political community."
Examples of minimal involvement in politics: bloggers and talk-show participants.
In authoritarian governments and states, such participation is discouraged or suppressed, but social networks and cell phones, and Internet publications can circumvent such prohibition. The authorities may frown or ignore such activities, but the masses, especially those directly affected by the circumstances in question, may respond. and movements for change may arise.
Subversive Resistance and Revolution:
The ordinary weapons of relatively powerless groups: Foot dragging, dissimulation, false compliance with behind-the-scenes resistance, pilfering, feigned ignorance, slander, arson, sabotage, and so forth.
Passive resistance of those engaged in civil disobedience to a leader's policies
Active non-violent activities.
Violent resistance against the leaders, which may result in revolve or revolution.
Chapter 3 Personality characteristics and skills leaders demonstrate in different contexts and why such qualities are helpful.
Maria's letter to Malvolio in Twelfth Night: "Some are born to leadership; some achieve leadership; others have leadership thrust upon them." The categories are not mutually exclusive.
Leadership traits: self-confident, sociable, articulate, persistent, having strategic intelligence
Skills: problem-solving and social judgment.
getting and using information strategically; ability to use effective ways to communicate well and symbolically and persuasively; good listeners and good decision makers, compromising well;
Judgment is the nucleus of leadership: good judgment involves gathering multiple perspectives, possessing imagination and peripheral vision; foresight; a good sense of timing; selecting the right people for the key jobs.
Sun Tzu: five qualities which are dangerous in the character of a general: recklessness, cowardice, being quick-tempered, having too-delicate a sense of honor, and being of a compassionate nature.
Other personal characteristics relevant to leadership are passion and proportion, empathy and detachment, courage and moderation.
A guiding vision: leaders have a clear idea of what they want to do.
Psychological complexity or complex personality
Chapter 4 Does gender make any difference? Do women lead differently from men?
Effects of organizational culture and the demands of institutional leadership outweigh any effects of gender.
Chapter 5 Leadership in democratic communities
A successful democracy needs to make sure the work of leadership gets done, so that the community does not ignore problems that cause difficulties for the citizens.
Leaders who overreach their responsibilities or amass privileges or power that overshadows those of other citizens pose threat to participation and popular sovereignty.
The collective exercise of judgment is an important element of democratic decision making, along with the perspective, experience, and wisdom brought by those occupied positions of responsibilities in the community.
Aristotle: All citizens should share alike in a system of government under which they rule and are ruled by turns.
To prevent abuses of power: the classical Athenian democracy devised such ways as ostracism for those who displayed arrogance, overreached their power, and threatened to dominate other citizens through deploying their expertise. In modern democracy there are ways to prevent the perpetuation of the same people in leadership positions, emphasize accountability of leaders, ensure citizens' free access to sources of information, enlarge the extent of popular participation in government, and limit the accumulation of privilege.
Chapter 6 The complex interactions among character, ethics, and leadership. The distinctive temptations that leaders face, the corrupting effects of power, virtues valuable to leaders in many contexts
The permanent exercise of leadership exerts upon the moral character of the leaders an influence which is essentially pernicious. (Michels)
Many attractions, temptations, and potentially corrupting effects of being a leader are consequences or attributes of power holding: power, status, authority and leadership. A leader must avoid developing close relationships with people who work for her/with her. Or she may lose her objectivity (detachment) and may be accused of favoritism. She must develop tolerance for having everything she does be the subject of others' speculation, and must be watchful of every word and action of hers. Top leaders are always on duty, always on show, sometimes give themselves wholly to their work.
There are two kinds of deadly sins in the field of politics: lack of objectivity and ...irresponsibility. Vanity ... strongly tempts the politician to commit one or both of these sins. (Weber)
Michael Maccoby: "narcissistic leaders": some high-profile, gifted leaders may suffer from "self-involvement, unpredictability, and ...paranoia" and lead their organizations into disaster.
Weber: some politicians fall prey to vanity, lose their objectivity, and sense of proportion, and their holding power becomes purely personal self-intoxication.
Leaders need to maintain "distance towards one's self," (Weber) A sense of pragmatic realism, or a sardonic sense of humor, and humility in the face of uncertainty, a willingness to accept partial successes... contribute to leaders' long-term effectiveness and equanimity.
Corruption in leadership extent beyond the temptations of financial gain or the desire to hold on to power at all costs. Corruption encompasses using power to gain access to privileges of status, nepotism or spousal advancement. It may be shown in the willingness to engage in cruelty and ruthless behavior. It is easy to fall into the trap of assuming that you can always shape things to your will. Countless leaders have been brought down by such assumptions.
Aristotle: To be denied the power of doing just as one pleases, is an advantage, since the power to act at will leaves no defense against the evil that is present in every human being.
Leaders will be better prepared against corrupting effects of power if they have clear values and an effective moral compass, as well as enough humility to avoid arrogance and complacent certainty.
Weber: the ethics of responsibility --a form of consequential morality.
Responsibility for other human beings, and responsibility to themselves in the sense of accountability.
Conclusion Significant points in the book, issues and questions for two sets of readers -would-be leaders and political theorists
Source:
Nannerl O. Keohane. Thinking About Leadership. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010).
